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Impact on human agency
Impersonation / identity theft

Autonomy

A Closer Look at the Existing Risks of Generative AI: Mapping the Who, What, and How of Real-World Incidents

Li et al. (2025)

SourceDOI
Category
Risk Domain
5Human-Computer Interaction
5.2Loss of human agency and autonomy

Delegating by humans of key decisions to AI systems, or AI systems that make decisions that diminish human control and autonomy, potentially leading to humans feeling disempowered, losing the ability to shape a fulfilling life trajectory, or becoming cognitively enfeebled.

"Loss of or restrictions to the ability or rights of an individual, group or entity to make decisions and control their identity and/or output due to the use of misuse of a technology system or set of systems"

Entity— Who or what caused the harm

Human

Due to a decision or action made by humans

AI system

Due to a decision or action made by an AI system

Other

Due to some other reason or is ambiguous

Intent— Whether the harm was intentional or accidental

Intentional

Due to an expected outcome from pursuing a goal

Unintentional

Due to an unexpected outcome from pursuing a goal

Other

Without clearly specifying the intentionality

Timing— Whether the risk is pre- or post-deployment

Pre-deployment

Occurring before the AI is deployed

Post-deployment

Occurring after the AI model has been trained and deployed

Other

Without a clearly specified time of occurrence

Sub-categories (1)

Impersonation / identity theft

"Theft of an individual, group or organisation’s identity by a third-party in order to defraud, mock or otherwise harm them or another party"

4.3 Fraud, scams, and targeted manipulation
HumanIntentionalPost-deployment

Other risks from Li et al. (2025) (40)

Misinformation Harms

3.1 False or misleading information
AI systemOtherPost-deployment

Representation and Toxicity

1.0 Discrimination & Toxicity
AI systemUnintentionalPost-deployment

Autonomy > Impersonation / identity theft

4.3 Fraud, scams, and targeted manipulation
HumanIntentionalPost-deployment

IP / copyright / personality / rights loss

4.3 Fraud, scams, and targeted manipulation
HumanIntentionalPost-deployment

Autonomy / agency loss

5.2 Loss of human agency and autonomy
OtherOtherOther

Political instability

6.0 Socioeconomic & Environmental
HumanOtherOther
View all 40 risks from this paper →